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Tuesday 3 July 2012

PLSQL-Using the PL/SQL Block Structure

Using the PL/SQL Block Structure

As Example 4-1 shows, a PL/SQL block has three basic parts: a declarative part (DECLARE), an executable part (BEGIN ... END), and an exception-handling (EXCEPTION) part that handles error conditions. For a discussion about exception handling, see "Handling PL/SQL Errors".
Only the executable part is required. The optional declarative part is written first, where you define types, variables, and similar items. These items are manipulated in the executable part. Errors that occur during execution can be dealt with in the exception-handling part.
Note the comments that are added to the PL/SQL code. See "Using Comments". Also, note the use of DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE to display output. See "Inputting and Outputting Data with PL/SQL".
Example 4-1 Using a Simple PL/SQL Block
-- the following is an optional declarative part
DECLARE
  monthly_salary         NUMBER(6);
  number_of_days_worked  NUMBER(2);
  pay_per_day            NUMBER(6,2);

-- the following is the executable part, from BEGIN to END
BEGIN
  monthly_salary := 2290;
  number_of_days_worked := 21;
  pay_per_day := monthly_salary/number_of_days_worked;

-- the following displays output from the PL/SQL block
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The pay per day is ' || TO_CHAR(pay_per_day));

-- the following is an optional exception part that handles errors
EXCEPTION
  WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
      pay_per_day := 0;

END;
/

For another example of a PL/SQL block structure, see Example 4-13.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about PL/SQL language elements

Inputting and Outputting Data with PL/SQL

Most PL/SQL input and output is through SQL statements, to store data in database tables or to query those tables. All other PL/SQL I/O is done through APIs that interact with other programs. For example, the DBMS_OUTPUT package has procedures such as PUT_LINE. To see the result outside of PL/SQL requires another program, such as the SQL Commands page or SQL Command Line (SQL*Plus), to read and display the data passed to DBMS_OUTPUT.
The SQL Commands page is configured to display output with DBMS_OUTPUT. SQL Command Line does not display DBMS_OUTPUT data unless you first issue the SQL*Plus command SET SERVEROUTPUT ON. For information about SQL Command Line SET command, see "SQL Command Line SET Commands" .
Example 4-2 show the use of DBMS_OUTPUT.PUTLINE. Note the use of SET SERVEROUTPUT ON to enable output.
Example 4-2 Using DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE to Display PL/SQL Output
-- enable SERVEROUTPUT in SQL Command Line (SQL*Plus) to display output with 
-- DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE, this enables SERVEROUTPUT for this SQL*Plus session only
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

DECLARE
  answer  VARCHAR2(20); -- declare a variable
BEGIN
-- assign a value to a variable
  answer := 'Maybe';
-- use PUT_LINE to display data from the PL/SQL block
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'The answer is: ' || answer );
END;
/

The DBMS_OUTPUT package is a predefined Oracle package. For information about Oracle supplied packages, see "Oracle Provided Packages".
See Also:

Using Comments

The PL/SQL compiler ignores comments, but you should not. Adding comments to your program improves readability and helps others understand your code. Generally, you use comments to describe the purpose and use of each code segment. PL/SQL supports single-line and multiple-line comment styles.
Single-line comments begin with a double hyphen (--) anywhere on a line and extend to the end of the line. Multiple-line comments begin with a slash and an asterisk (/*), end with an asterisk and a slash (*/), and can span multiple lines. See Example 4-3.
Example 4-3 Using Comments in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- Declare variables here.
  monthly_salary         NUMBER(6);  -- This is the monthly salary.
  number_of_days_worked  NUMBER(2);  -- This is the days in one month.
  pay_per_day            NUMBER(6,2); -- Calculate this value.
BEGIN
-- First assign values to the variables.
  monthly_salary := 2290;
  number_of_days_worked := 21;

-- Now calculate the value on the following line.
  pay_per_day := monthly_salary/number_of_days_worked;

-- the following displays output from the PL/SQL block
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The pay per day is ' || TO_CHAR(pay_per_day));

EXCEPTION
/* This is a simple example of an exeception handler to trap division by zero. 
   In actual practice, it would be best to check whether a variable is
   zero before using it as a divisor. */
  WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
      pay_per_day := 0; -- set to 0 if divisor equals 0
END;
/

While testing or debugging a program, you might want to disable a line of code. The following example shows how you can disable a single line by making it a comment:
-- pay_per_day := monthly_salary/number_of_days_worked;
You can use multiple-line comment delimiters to comment out large sections of code.

Declaring Variables and Constants

Variables can have any SQL datatype, such as VARCHAR2, DATE, or NUMBER, or a PL/SQL-only datatype, such as a BOOLEAN or PLS_INTEGER. You can also declare nested tables, variable-size arrays (varrays for short), and records using the TABLE, VARRAY, and RECORD composite datatypes. See "Working With PL/SQL Data Structures".
Declaring a constant is similar to declaring a variable except that you must add the CONSTANT keyword and immediately assign a value to the constant. No further assignments to the constant are allowed. For an example, see the avg_days_worked_month constant in Example 4-4.
For example, assume that you want to declare variables for employee data, such as employee_id to hold 6-digit numbers and active_employee to hold the Boolean value TRUE or FALSE. You declare these and related employee variables and constants, as shown in Example 4-4.
Note that there is a semi colon (;) at the end of each line in the declaration section. Also, note the use of the NULL statement that enables you to run and test the PL/SQL block.
You can choose any naming convention for variables that is appropriate for your application, but the names must be valid PL/SQL identifiers. See "Using Identifiers in PL/SQL".
Example 4-4 Declaring Variables in PL/SQL
DECLARE -- declare the variables in this section
  last_name              VARCHAR2(30);
  first_name             VARCHAR2(25);
  employee_id            NUMBER(6);
  active_employee        BOOLEAN;
  monthly_salary         NUMBER(6);
  number_of_days_worked  NUMBER(2);
  pay_per_day            NUMBER(6,2);
  avg_days_worked_month  CONSTANT NUMBER(2) := 21; -- a constant variable
BEGIN
  NULL; -- NULL statement does nothing, allows this block to executed and tested
END;
/

See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about datatypes used with PL/SQL, including the PL/SQL BOOLEAN and PLS_INTEGER datatypes

Using Identifiers in PL/SQL

You use identifiers to name PL/SQL program items and units, such as constants, variables, exceptions, and subprograms. An identifier consists of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals, dollar signs, underscores, and number signs. Characters such as ampersands (&), hyphens (-), slashes (/), and spaces ( ) are not allowed.
You can use uppercase, lowercase, or mixed case to write identifiers. PL/SQL is not case-sensitive except within string and character literals. Every character, including dollar signs, underscores, and number signs, is significant. If the only difference between identifiers is the case of corresponding letters, PL/SQL considers the identifiers the same.
The declaration section in Example 4-5 show some PL/SQL identifiers. You can see additional examples of identifiers for variable names in Example 4-3 and Example 4-4.
Example 4-5 Using Identifiers for Variables in PL/SQL
DECLARE
  lastname           VARCHAR2(30); -- valid identifier
  last_name          VARCHAR2(30); -- valid identifier, _ allowed
  last$name          VARCHAR2(30); -- valid identifier, $ allowed
  last#name          VARCHAR2(30); -- valid identifier, # allowed
--  last-name  is invalid, hypen not allowed
--  last/name  is invalid, slash not allowed
--  last name  is invalid, space not allowed
--  LASTNAME is invalid, same as lastname and LastName
--  LastName is invalid, same as lastname and LASTNAME
BEGIN
  NULL; -- NULL statement does nothing, allows this block to executed and tested
END;
/

The size of an identifier cannot exceed 30 characters. Identifiers should be descriptive. When possible, avoid obscure names such as cpm. Instead, use meaningful names such as cost_per_million. You can use prefixes for more clarification. For example, you could begin each variable name with the var_ and each constant name with con_.
Some identifiers, called reserved words or keywords, have a special syntactic meaning to PL/SQL. For example, the words BEGIN and END are reserved. Often, reserved words and keywords are written in upper case for readability. Neither reserved words or keywords should be used as identifiers and the use can cause compilation errors. For a list of PL/SQL reserved words and keywords, see Appendix B, "Reserved Words".

Assigning Values to a Variable With the Assignment Operator

You can assign values to a variable in several ways. One way uses the assignment operator (:=), a colon followed by an equal sign, as shown in Example 4-6. You place the variable to the left of the operator and an expression, including function calls, to the right. Note that you can assign a value to a variable when it is declared.
Example 4-6 Assigning Values to Variables With the PL/SQL Assignment Operator
DECLARE  -- declare and assiging variables
   wages          NUMBER(6,2);
   hours_worked   NUMBER := 40;
   hourly_salary  NUMBER := 22.50;
   bonus          NUMBER := 150;
   country        VARCHAR2(128);
   counter        NUMBER := 0;
   done           BOOLEAN := FALSE;
   valid_id       BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
   wages := (hours_worked * hourly_salary) + bonus;  -- compute wages
   country := 'France'; -- assign a string literal
   country := UPPER('Canada'); -- assign an uppercase string literal
   done := (counter > 100); -- assign a BOOLEAN, in this case FALSE
   valid_id := TRUE; -- assign a BOOLEAN
END;
/

Using Literals

A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean value not represented by an identifier. For example, 147 is a numeric literal, and FALSE is a Boolean literal.
Numeric Literals
Two kinds of numeric literals can be used in arithmetic expressions: integer and real. An integer literal is an optionally signed whole number without a decimal point, such as +6. A real literal is an optionally signed whole or fractional number with a decimal point, such as -3.14159. PL/SQL considers a number such as 25. to be real, even though it has an integral value.
Numeric literals cannot contain dollar signs or commas, but can be written using scientific notation. Add an E (or e) after the base number, followed by an optionally signed integer, for example -9.5e-3. The E (or e) represents the base number ten and the following integer represents the exponent.
Example 4-7 shows some examples of numeric literals.
Example 4-7 Using Numeric Literals in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  number1 PLS_INTEGER := 32000;  -- numeric literal
  number2 NUMBER(8,3);
BEGIN
  number2 := 3.125346e3;  -- numeric literal
  number2 := -8300.00;  -- numeric literal
  number2 := -14;  -- numeric literal
END;
/
Character Literals
A character literal is an individual character enclosed by single quotation marks (apostrophes), such as '(' or '7'. Character literals include all the printable characters in the PL/SQL character set: letters, numbers, spaces, and special symbols.
PL/SQL is case-sensitive within character literals. For example, PL/SQL considers the character literals 'Z' and 'z' to be different. The character literals '0'...'9' are not equivalent to integer literals, but can be used in arithmetic expressions because they are implicitly convertible to integers.
Example 4-8 shows some examples of character literals.
Example 4-8 Using Character Literals in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  char1   VARCHAR2(1) := 'x'; -- character literal
  char2   VARCHAR2(1);
BEGIN
  char2 := '5'; -- character literal
END;
/

String Literals
A character value can be represented by an identifier or explicitly written as a string literal, which is a sequence of zero or more characters enclosed by single quotation marks, such as 'Hello, world!' and '$1,000,000'.
PL/SQL is case-sensitive within string literals. For example, PL/SQL considers the string literals 'baker' and 'Baker' to be different:
To represent an apostrophe within a string, you can use two single quotation marks (''), which is not the same as a quotation mark ("). You can also use the quote-delimiter mechanism, which enables you to specify q or Q followed by a single quotation mark and then another character to be used as the quotation mark delimiter. See "Using Character Literals in SQL Statements".
Example 4-9 shows some examples of string literals.
Example 4-9 Using String Literals in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  string1   VARCHAR2(1000);
  string2   VARCHAR2(32767);
BEGIN
  string1 := '555-111-2323';
 -- the following needs two single quotation marks to represent one in the string
  string2 := 'Here''s an example of two single quotation marks used in a string.';
END;
/
BOOLEAN Literals
BOOLEAN literals are the predefined values: TRUE, FALSE, and NULL. NULL is a missing, unknown, or inapplicable value. BOOLEAN literals are values, not strings.
Example 4-10 shows some examples of BOOLEAN literals.
Example 4-10 Using BOOLEAN Literals in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  finished      BOOLEAN := TRUE; -- BOOLEAN literal
  complete      BOOLEAN; -- BOOLEAN literal
  true_or_false BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
  finished := FALSE;  -- BOOLEAN literal set to FALSE
  complete := NULL; -- BOOLEAN literal with unknown value
  true_or_false := (3 = 4); -- BOOLEAN literal set to FALSE
  true_or_false := (3 < 4); -- BOOLEAN literal set to TRUE
END;
/
Date-time Literals
Date-time literals have various formats depending on the date-time datatype used, such as '14-SEP-05' or '14-SEP-05 09:24:04 AM'.
Example 4-11 shows some examples of date-time literals.
Example 4-11 Using Date-time Literals in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  date1   DATE := '11-AUG-2005'; -- DATE literal
  time1   TIMESTAMP;
  time2   TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE;
BEGIN
  time1 := '11-AUG-2005 11:01:01 PM'; -- TIMESTAMP literal
  time2 := '11-AUG-2005 09:26:56.66 PM +02:00'; -- TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE 
END;
/

See Also:

Declaring Variables With the DEFAULT Keyword or NOT NULL Constraint

You can use the DEFAULT keyword instead of the assignment operator to initialize variables when they are declared. Use DEFAULT for variables that have a typical value. Use the assignment operator for variables (such as counters and accumulators) that have no typical value. You can also use DEFAULT to initialize subprogram parameters, cursor parameters, and fields in a user-defined record.
In addition to assigning an initial value, declarations can impose the NOT NULL constraint so that assigning a NULL causes an error. The NOT NULL constraint must be followed by an initialization clause.
In Example 4-12 the declaration for the avg_days_worked_month variable uses the DEFAULT to assign a value of 21 and the declarations for the active_employee and monthly_salary variables use the NOT NULL constraint.
Example 4-12 Using DEFAULT and NOT NULL in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare and assign variables
  last_name              VARCHAR2(30);
  first_name             VARCHAR2(25);
  employee_id            NUMBER(6);
  active_employee        BOOLEAN NOT NULL := TRUE;  -- value cannot be NULL
  monthly_salary         NUMBER(6) NOT NULL := 2000; -- value cannot be NULL
  number_of_days_worked  NUMBER(2);
  pay_per_day            NUMBER(6,2);
  employee_count         NUMBER(6) := 0;
  avg_days_worked_month  NUMBER(2) DEFAULT 21;  -- assign a default value
BEGIN
  NULL; -- NULL statement does nothing, allows this block to executed and tested
END;
/

Assigning Values to a Variable With the PL/SQL SELECT INTO Statement

Another way to assign values to a variable is by selecting (or fetching) database values into it. With the PL/SQL SELECT INTO statement, you can retrieve data from one row in a table. In Example 4-13, 10 percent of the salary of an employee is selected into the bonus variable. Now, you can use the bonus variable in another computation, or insert its value into a database table.
In the example, the DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE procedure is used to display output from the PL/SQL program. For more information, see "Inputting and Outputting Data with PL/SQL".
Example 4-13 Assigning Values to Variables Using PL/SQL SELECT INTO
DECLARE -- declare and assign values
  bonus_rate CONSTANT NUMBER(2,3) := 0.05;
  bonus      NUMBER(8,2);
  emp_id     NUMBER(6) := 120;  -- assign a test value for employee ID
BEGIN
-- retreive a salary from the employees table, then calculate the bonus and 
-- assign the value to the bonus variable
  SELECT salary * bonus_rate INTO bonus FROM employees
    WHERE employee_id = emp_id;
-- display the employee_id, bonus amount, and bonus rate
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ( 'Employee: ' || TO_CHAR(emp_id) 
      || ' Bonus: ' || TO_CHAR(bonus) || ' Bonus Rate: ' || TO_CHAR(bonus_rate)); 
END;
/

See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about SELECT INTO syntax

Using %TYPE and %ROWTYPE Attributes to Declare Identical Datatypes

As part of the declaration for each PL/SQL variable, you declare its datatype. Usually, this datatype is one of the types shared between PL/SQL and SQL, such as NUMBER or VARCHAR2. For easier code maintenance that interacts with the database, you can also use the special qualifiers %TYPE and %ROWTYPE to declare variables that hold table columns or table rows.
This section contains the following topics:

Using the %TYPE Attribute to Declare Variables

The %TYPE attribute provides the datatype of a variable or table column. This is particularly useful when declaring variables that will hold values of a table column. For example, suppose you want to declare variables as the same datatype as the employee_id and last_name columns in employees table. To declare variables named empid and emplname that have the same datatype as the table columns, use dot notation and the %TYPE attribute. See Example 4-14.
Example 4-14 Using %TYPE With Table Columns in PL/SQL
DECLARE -- declare variables using %TYPE attribute
   empid    employees.employee_id%TYPE;  -- employee_id datatype is NUMBER(6)
   emplname employees.last_name%TYPE;  -- last_name datatype is VARCHAR2(25)
BEGIN
   empid    := 100301;  -- this is OK because it fits in NUMBER(6)
--   empid  := 3018907;  -- this is too large and will cause an overflow
   emplname := 'Patel'; --  this is OK because it fits in VARCHAR2(25)
   DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee ID: ' || empid);  -- display data
   DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name: ' || emplname); -- display data
END;
/

Declaring variables with the %TYPE attribute has two advantages. First, you do not need to know the exact datatype of the table columns. Second, if you change the database definition of columns, such as employee_id or last_name, the datatypes of empid and emplname in Example 4-14 change accordingly at run time.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about the %TYPE attribute

Using the %ROWTYPE Attribute to Declare Variables

For easier maintenance of code that interacts with the database, you can use the %ROWTYPE attribute to declare a variable that represents a row in a table. A PL/SQL record is the datatype that stores the same information as a row in a table.
In PL/SQL, records are used to group data. A record consists of a number of related fields in which data values can be stored. The record can store an entire row of data selected from the table or fetched from a cursor or cursor variable. For information about records, see "Using Record Types".
Columns in a row and corresponding fields in a record have the same names and datatypes. In Example 4-15, you declare a record named emp_rec. Its fields have the same names and datatypes as the columns in the employees table. You use dot notation to reference fields, such as emp_rec.last_name.
In Example 4-15, the SELECT statement is used to store row information from the employees table into the emp_rec record. When you run the SELECT INTO statement, the value in the first_name column of the employees table is assigned to the first_name field of emp_rec; the value in the last_name column is assigned to the last_name field of emp_rec; and so on.
Example 4-15 Using %ROWTYPE with a PL/SQL Record
DECLARE -- declare variables
-- declare record variable that represents a row fetched from the employees table
   emp_rec employees%ROWTYPE; -- declare variable with %ROWTYPE attribute
BEGIN
  SELECT * INTO emp_rec FROM EMPLOYEES WHERE employee_id = 120; -- retrieve record
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name: ' || emp_rec.first_name || ' ' 
                       || emp_rec.last_name); -- display
END;
/

Declaring variables with the %ROWTYPE attribute has several advantages. First, you do not need to know the exact datatype of the table columns. Second, if you change the database definition of any of the table columns, the datatypes associated with the %ROWTYPE declaration change accordingly at run time.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about the %ROWTYPE attribute

Using PL/SQL Control Structures

Control structures are the most important PL/SQL extension to SQL. Not only does PL/SQL let you manipulate Oracle data, it lets you process the data using conditional, iterative, and sequential flow-of-control statements such as IF-THEN-ELSE, CASE, FOR-LOOP, WHILE-LOOP, EXIT-WHEN, and GOTO.
This section contains the following topics:

Conditional Control With IF-THEN

Often, it is necessary to take alternative actions depending on circumstances. The IF-THEN statement lets you run a sequence of statements conditionally. The forms of the statement can be IF-THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE, or IF-THEN-ELSEIF-ELSE. The IF clause checks a condition; the THEN clause defines what to do if the condition is true; and the ELSE clause defines what to do if the condition is false or null. Example 4-16 shows a simple use of the IF-THEN statement.
Example 4-16 Using a Simple IF-THEN Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE
  sal         NUMBER(8,2);
  bonus       NUMBER(6,2);
  hiredate    DATE;
  empid       NUMBER(6) := 128; -- use employee 120 for testing
BEGIN
-- retrieve the salary and the date that employee was hired, the date is checked
-- to calculate the amount of the bonus for the employee
  SELECT salary, hire_date INTO sal, hiredate FROM employees 
    WHERE employee_id = empid;
  IF hiredate > TO_DATE('01-JAN-00') THEN
     bonus := sal/20;
     DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Bonus for employee: ' || empid || ' is: ' || bonus );
  END IF;
END;
/

Example 4-17 shows the use of IF-THEN-ELSEIF-ELSE to determine the salary raise an employee receives based on the hire date of the employee.
Example 4-17 Using the IF-THEN-ELSEIF Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE
  bonus    NUMBER(6,2);
  empid    NUMBER(6) := 120;
  hiredate DATE;
BEGIN
-- retrieve the date that employee was hired, the date is checked
-- to determine the amount of the bonus for the employee
  SELECT hire_date INTO hiredate FROM employees WHERE employee_id = empid;
  IF hiredate > TO_DATE('01-JAN-98') THEN
      bonus := 500;
   ELSIF hiredate > TO_DATE('01-JAN-96') THEN
      bonus := 1000;
   ELSE
      bonus := 1500;
   END IF;
   DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Bonus for employee: ' || empid || ' is: ' || bonus );
END;
/

Conditional Control With the CASE Statement

To choose among several values or courses of action, you can use CASE constructs. The CASE expression evaluates a condition and returns a value for each case. The case statement evaluates a condition, and performs an action, such as an entire PL/SQL block, for each case. When possible, rewrite lengthy IF-THEN-ELSIF statements as CASE statements because the CASE statement is more readable and more efficient.
Example 4-18 shows a simple CASE statement.
Example 4-18 Using the CASE-WHEN Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE
  grade CHAR(1);
BEGIN
  grade := 'B';
  CASE grade
    WHEN 'A' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Excellent');
    WHEN 'B' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Very Good');
    WHEN 'C' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Good');
    WHEN 'D' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Fair');
    WHEN 'F' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Poor');
    ELSE DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No such grade');
  END CASE;
END;
/

Example 4-19 determines the salary raise an employee receives based on the current salary of the employee and the job ID. This complex example combines the CASE expression with IF-THEN-ELSE statements.
Example 4-19 Using the IF-THEN_ELSE and CASE Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE -- declare variables
   empid          NUMBER(6) := 115;
   jobid          VARCHAR2(10);
   sal            NUMBER(8,2);
   sal_raise      NUMBER(3,2); -- this is the rate of increase for the raise
BEGIN
-- retrieve the job ID and salary for the employee and 
-- assign the values to variables jobid and sal
  SELECT job_id, salary INTO jobid, sal from employees WHERE employee_id = empid;
  CASE  -- determine the salary raise rate based on employee job ID
    WHEN jobid = 'PU_CLERK' THEN
        IF sal < 3000 THEN sal_raise := .08;
          ELSE sal_raise := .07;
        END IF;
    WHEN jobid = 'SH_CLERK' THEN
        IF sal < 4000 THEN sal_raise := .06;
          ELSE sal_raise := .05;
        END IF;
    WHEN jobid = 'ST_CLERK' THEN
        IF sal < 3500 THEN sal_raise := .04;
          ELSE sal_raise := .03;
        END IF;
    ELSE
     BEGIN
-- if no conditions met, then the following
       DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No raise for this job: ' || jobid); 
     END;
  END CASE;
-- display the percent raise for the employee
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Percent salary raise for employee: ' || empid || ' is: '
                         || sal_raise );
END;
/

A sequence of statements that uses query results to select alternative actions is common in database applications. Another common sequence inserts or deletes a row only if an associated entry is found in another table. You can bundle these common sequences into a PL/SQL block using conditional logic.

Iterative Control With LOOPs

LOOP statements let you run a sequence of statements multiple times. You place the keyword LOOP before the first statement in the sequence and the keywords END LOOP after the last statement in the sequence.
The FOR-LOOP statement lets you specify a range of integers, then run a sequence of statements once for each integer in the range. In Example 4-20, the loop displays the number and the square of the number for numbers 1 to 10. Note that you do not have to declare or initialize the counter in the FOR-LOOP and any valid identifier can be used for the name, such as loop_counter.
Example 4-20 Using the FOR-LOOP in PL/SQL
BEGIN
-- use a FOR loop to process a series of numbers
  FOR loop_counter IN 1..10 LOOP
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || TO_CHAR(loop_counter) 
                          || ' Square: ' || TO_CHAR(loop_counter**2));
  END LOOP;
END;
/

The WHILE-LOOP statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements. Before each iteration of the loop, the condition is evaluated. If the condition is true, the sequence of statements is executed, then control resumes at the top of the loop. If the condition is false or null, the loop is bypassed and control passes to the next statement.
In Example 4-21, the loop displays the number and the cube of the number while the number is less than or equal to 10.
Example 4-21 Using WHILE-LOOP for Control in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare variables
   i         NUMBER := 1; -- loop counter, initialize to one
   i_cubed   NUMBER;
BEGIN
-- use WHILE LOOP to process data
  WHILE i <= 10 LOOP
    i_cubed := i**3;
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || TO_CHAR(i) 
                       || ' Cube: ' || TO_CHAR(i_cubed));
    i := i + 1;
  END LOOP;
END;
/

The EXIT-WHEN statement lets you complete a loop if further processing is impossible or undesirable. When the EXIT statement is encountered, the condition in the WHEN clause is evaluated. If the condition is true, the loop completes and control passes to the next statement. In Example 4-22, the loop completes when the value of total exceeds 25,000:
Example 4-22 Using the EXIT-WHEN Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE -- declare and assign values to variables
  total   NUMBER(9) := 0;
  counter NUMBER(6) := 0;
BEGIN
  LOOP
    counter := counter + 1; -- increment counter variable
    total := total + counter * counter;  -- compute total
    -- exit loop when condition is true
    EXIT WHEN total > 25000; -- LOOP until condition is met 
  END LOOP;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Counter: ' || TO_CHAR(counter) 
                       || ' Total: ' || TO_CHAR(total));  -- display results
END;
/

Sequential Control With GOTO

The GOTO statement lets you branch to a label unconditionally; however, you would usually try to avoid exiting a loop in this manner. The label, an undeclared identifier enclosed by double angle brackets, must precede an executable statement or a PL/SQL block. When executed, the GOTO statement transfers control to the labeled statement or block.
Example 4-23 shows the use of the GOTO statement in a loop that is testing for prime numbers. When a number can be divided into evenly (no remainder), then it is not a prime and the loop is immediately exited. Note the use of the SQL numeric function MOD to check for no (zero) remainder. See "Using Numeric Functions" for information about SQL numeric functions.
Example 4-23 Using the GOTO Statement in PL/SQL
DECLARE  -- declare variables
  p        VARCHAR2(30);
  n        PLS_INTEGER := 37; -- test any integer > 2 for prime, here 37
BEGIN
-- loop through divisors to determine if a prime number
  FOR j in 2..ROUND(SQRT(n)) 
  LOOP
    IF n MOD j = 0 THEN -- test for prime
      p := ' is NOT a prime number'; -- not a prime number
      GOTO print_now;
    END IF;
  END LOOP;
  p := ' is a prime number';
<<print_now>>
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(TO_CHAR(n) || p);  -- display results
END;
/

Using Local PL/SQL Procedures and Functions in PL/SQL Blocks

Procedures and functions (subprograms) are named PL/SQL blocks that can be called with a set of parameters from inside of a PL/SQL block.
A procedure is a subprogram that performs a specific action. You specify the name of the procedure, its parameters, its local variables, and the BEGIN-END block that contains its code and handles any exceptions. A function is a subprogram that computes and returns a value. Functions and procedures are structured alike, except that functions return a value.
When passing parameters to functions and procedures, the parameters can be declared as IN or OUT or IN OUT parameters.
  • IN indicates that you must supply a value for the argument when calling the function or procedure. This is the default.
  • OUT indicates that the function or procedure will set the value of the argument.
  • IN OUT indicates that a value for the argument can be supplied by you and can be set by the function or procedure.
Example 4-24 is an example of a declaration of a PL/SQL procedure in a PL/SQL block. Note that the v1 and v2 variables are declared as IN OUT parameters to a subprogram.
Example 4-24 Declaring a Local PL/SQL Procedure With IN OUT Parameters
DECLARE -- declare variables and subprograms
  fname    VARCHAR2(20) := 'randall';
  lname    VARCHAR2(25) := 'dexter';

-- declare a local procedure which can only be used in this block
  PROCEDURE upper_name ( v1 IN OUT VARCHAR2, v2 IN OUT VARCHAR2) AS
    BEGIN
      v1 := UPPER(v1); -- change the string to uppercase
      v2 := UPPER(v2); -- change the string to uppercase
    END upper_name;

-- start of executable part of block
BEGIN
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(fname || ' ' || lname ); -- display initial values
  upper_name (fname, lname); -- call the procedure with parameters
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(fname || ' ' || lname ); -- display new values
END;
/

Example 4-25 is an example of a declaration of a PL/SQL function in a PL/SQL block. Note that the value returned by the function is used directly in the DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE statement. Note that the v1 and v2 variables are declared as IN parameters to a subprogram. An IN parameter passes an initial value that is read inside of a subprogram. Any update to the value of the parameter inside of the subprogram is not accessible outside of the subprogram.
Example 4-25 Declaring a Local PL/SQL Function With IN Parameters
DECLARE -- declare variables and subprograms
  fname    VARCHAR2(20) := 'randall';
  lname    VARCHAR2(25) := 'dexter';

-- declare local function which can only be used in this block
  FUNCTION upper_name ( v1 IN VARCHAR2, v2 IN VARCHAR2)
    RETURN VARCHAR2 AS
    v3     VARCHAR2(45);  -- this variable is local to the function
    BEGIN
    -- build a string that will be returned as the function value 
      v3 := v1 || ' + ' || v2 || ' = ' || UPPER(v1) || ' ' || UPPER(v2);
      RETURN v3;  -- return the value of v3
    END upper_name;

-- start of executable part of block 
BEGIN
-- call the function and display results
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(upper_name (fname, lname)); 
END;
/

In Example 4-26, both a variable and a numeric literal are passed as a parameter to a more complex procedure.
Example 4-26 Declaring a Complex Local Procedure in a PL/SQL Block
DECLARE  -- declare variables and subprograms
  empid NUMBER;

-- declare local procedure for this block
  PROCEDURE avg_min_max_sal (empid IN NUMBER) IS
    jobid     VARCHAR2(10);
    avg_sal   NUMBER;
    min_sal   NUMBER;
    max_sal   NUMBER;
  BEGIN
    -- determine the job ID for the employee
    SELECT job_id INTO jobid FROM employees WHERE employee_id = empid;
    -- calculate the average, minimum, and maximum salaries for that job ID
    SELECT AVG(salary), MIN(salary), MAX(salary) INTO avg_sal, min_sal, max_sal
      FROM employees WHERE job_id = jobid;
    -- display data
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Employee ID: ' || empid || ' Job ID: ' || jobid);
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('The average salary for job ID: ' || jobid 
                            || ' is ' || TO_CHAR(avg_sal));
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('The minimum salary for job ID: ' || jobid 
                            || ' is ' || TO_CHAR(min_sal));
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('The maximum salary for job ID: ' || jobid 
                            || ' is ' || TO_CHAR(max_sal));
  END avg_min_max_sal;
-- end of local procedure

-- start executable part of block
BEGIN
-- call the procedure with several employee IDs
  empid := 125;
  avg_min_max_sal(empid);
  avg_min_max_sal(112);
END;
/

Subprograms can also be declared in packages. For an example of a subprogram declaration in a package, see Example 5-9. You can create standalone subprograms that are stored in the database. These subprograms can be called from other subprograms, packages, and SQL statements. See Chapter 5, "Using Procedures, Functions, and Packages".

Using Cursors and Cursor Variables To Retrieve Data

A cursor is a name for a private SQL area in which information for processing the specific statement is kept. PL/SQL uses both implicit and explicit cursors. Cursor attributes return useful information about the status of cursors in the execution of SQL statements.
PL/SQL implicitly creates a cursor for all SQL data manipulation statements on a set of rows, including queries that return only one row. Implicit cursors are managed automatically by PL/SQL so you are not required to write any code to handle these cursors. However, you can track information about the execution of an implicit cursor through its cursor attributes.
You can explicitly declare a cursor for one row or multiple rows if you want precise control over query processing. You must declare an explicit cursor for queries that return more than one row. For queries that return multiple rows, you can process the rows individually.
A cursor variable (REF CURSOR) is similar to a cursor and points to the current row in the result set of a multi-row query.
This section contains the following topics:

Explicit Cursors

Example 4-27 is an example of explicit cursor used to process one row of a table.You should explicitly open and close a cursor before and after use.
Example 4-27 Fetching a Single Row With a Cursor in PL/SQL
DECLARE
-- declare variables for first_name and last_name fetched from the employees table
  firstname  employees.first_name%TYPE;   -- variable for first_name
  lastname   employees.last_name%TYPE;   -- variable for last_name

-- declare a cursor to fetch data from a row (employee 120) in the employees table
  CURSOR cursor1 IS
    SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees WHERE employee_id = 120;

BEGIN
  OPEN cursor1; -- open the cursor
  FETCH cursor1 INTO firstname, lastname; -- fetch data into local variables
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name: ' || firstname || ' ' || lastname);
  CLOSE cursor1; -- close the cursor
END;
/

Example 4-28 shows examples of the use of a cursor to process multiple rows in a table. The FETCH statement retrieves the rows in the result set one at a time. Each fetch retrieves the current row and advances the cursor to the next row in the result set. Note the use of the cursor attributes %ROWCOUNT and %NOTFOUND. For information about cursor attributes, see "Cursor Attributes".
Example 4-28 Fetching Multiple Rows With a Cursor in PL/SQL
DECLARE  
-- declare variables for data fetched from cursors
  empid      employees.employee_id%TYPE; -- variable for employee_id
  jobid      employees.job_id%TYPE;      -- variable for job_id
  lastname   employees.last_name%TYPE;   -- variable for last_name
  rowcount   NUMBER;
-- declare the cursors
  CURSOR cursor1 IS SELECT last_name, job_id FROM employees 
                 WHERE job_id LIKE '%CLERK';
  CURSOR cursor2 is SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id FROM employees 
                 WHERE job_id LIKE '%MAN' OR job_id LIKE '%MGR';
BEGIN
-- start the processing with cursor1
  OPEN cursor1; -- open cursor1 before fetching
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( '---------- cursor 1-----------------' );
  LOOP
    FETCH cursor1 INTO lastname, jobid; -- fetches 2 columns into variables
-- check the cursor attribute NOTFOUND for the end of data
    EXIT WHEN cursor1%NOTFOUND;
-- display the last name and job ID for each record (row) fetched
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( RPAD(lastname, 25, ' ') || jobid );
  END LOOP;
  rowcount := cursor1%ROWCOUNT;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number of rows fetched is ' || rowcount );
  CLOSE cursor1;

-- start the processing with cursor2
  OPEN cursor2;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( '---------- cursor 2-----------------' );
  LOOP
-- fetch 3 columns into the variables
    FETCH cursor2 INTO empid, lastname, jobid; 
    EXIT WHEN cursor2%NOTFOUND;
-- display the employee ID, last name, and job ID for each record (row) fetched
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( empid || ': ' || RPAD(lastname, 25, ' ') || jobid );
  END LOOP;
  rowcount := cursor2%ROWCOUNT;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number of rows fetched is ' || rowcount );
  CLOSE cursor2;
END;
/

In Example 4-28, the LIKE condition operator is used to specify the records to return with the query. For information about LIKE, see "Restricting Data Using the WHERE Clause".
Example 4-29 shows how to pass a parameter to an explicit cursor. In the example, the current month value is passed to the cursor to specify that only those employees hired during this month are displayed. This provides a list of employees that have their yearly anniversary dates and their bonus amount.
Example 4-29 Passing Parameters to a Cursor in PL/SQL
DECLARE 
-- declare variables for data fetched from cursor
  empid       employees.employee_id%TYPE; -- variable for employee_id
  hiredate    employees.hire_date%TYPE;   -- variable for hire_date
  firstname   employees.first_name%TYPE;  -- variable for first_name
  lastname    employees.last_name%TYPE;   -- variable for last_name
  rowcount    NUMBER;
  bonusamount NUMBER;
  yearsworked NUMBER;
-- declare the cursor with a parameter,
  CURSOR cursor1 (thismonth NUMBER)IS 
    SELECT employee_id, first_name, last_name, hire_date FROM employees 
       WHERE EXTRACT(MONTH FROM hire_date) = thismonth;
BEGIN
-- open and pass a parameter to cursor1, select employees hired on this month
  OPEN cursor1(EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE));
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('----- Today is ' || TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'DL') || ' -----');
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employees with yearly bonus amounts:');
  LOOP
-- fetches 4 columns into variables
    FETCH cursor1 INTO empid, firstname, lastname, hiredate; 
-- check the cursor attribute NOTFOUND for the end of data
    EXIT WHEN cursor1%NOTFOUND;
-- calculate the yearly bonus amount based on months (years) worked
  yearsworked := ROUND( (MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, hiredate)/12) );
  IF yearsworked > 10   THEN bonusamount := 2000;
  ELSIF yearsworked > 8 THEN bonusamount := 1600;
  ELSIF yearsworked > 6 THEN bonusamount := 1200;
  ELSIF yearsworked > 4 THEN bonusamount := 800;
  ELSIF yearsworked > 2 THEN bonusamount := 400;
  ELSIF yearsworked > 0 THEN bonusamount := 100;
  END IF;
-- display the employee Id, first name, last name, hire date, and bonus 
-- for each record (row) fetched
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( empid || ' ' || RPAD(firstname, 21, ' ') ||
      RPAD(lastname, 26, ' ') || hiredate || TO_CHAR(bonusamount, '$9,999'));
  END LOOP;
  rowcount := cursor1%ROWCOUNT;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number of rows fetched is ' || rowcount );
  CLOSE cursor1;
END;
/

See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about managing cursors with PL/SQL

Cursor Variables (REF CURSORs)

Cursor variables (REF CURSORs) are like pointers to result sets. A cursor variable is more flexible than a cursor because it is not tied to a specific query. You can open a cursor variable for any query that returns the correct set of columns.
Cursor variables are used when you want to perform a query in one function or procedure, and process the results in a different subprogram, possibly in a different language. A cursor variable has the datatype REF CURSOR, and is often referred to informally as a REF CURSOR.
A REF CURSOR can be declared with a return type (strong type) or without a return type (weak type). A strong REF CURSOR type is less error prone because the PL/SQL compiler lets you associate a strongly typed cursor variable only with queries that return the right set of columns. A weak REF CURSOR types is more flexible because the compiler lets you associate a weakly typed cursor variable with any query. Because there is no type checking with a weak REF CURSOR, all such types are interchangeable. Instead of creating a new type, you can use the predefined type SYS_REFCURSOR.
Example 4-30 show how to declare a cursor variable of REF CURSOR datatype, then use that cursor variable as a formal parameter in a procedure. For additional examples of the use of REF CURSOR, see "Accessing Types in Packages". For an example of the use of a REF CURSOR with a PHP program, see Appendix C, "Using a PL/SQL Procedure With PHP". For an example of the use of a REF CURSOR with a Java program, see Appendix D, "Using a PL/SQL Procedure With JDBC".
Example 4-30 Using a Cursor Variable (REF CURSOR)
DECLARE
-- declare a REF CURSOR that returns employees%ROWTYPE (strongly typed)
   TYPE emp_refcur_typ IS REF CURSOR RETURN employees%ROWTYPE;
   emp_cursor emp_refcur_typ;
-- use the following local procedure to process all the rows after 
-- the result set is built, rather than calling a procedure for each row
   PROCEDURE process_emp_cv (emp_cv IN emp_refcur_typ) IS
      person employees%ROWTYPE;
   BEGIN
      DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('-- Here are the names from the result set --');
      LOOP
         FETCH emp_cv INTO person;
         EXIT WHEN emp_cv%NOTFOUND;
         DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(person.last_name || ', ' || person.first_name);
      END LOOP;
   END;
BEGIN
-- find employees whose employee ID is less than 108
  OPEN emp_cursor FOR SELECT * FROM employees WHERE employee_id < 108;
  process_emp_cv(emp_cursor); -- pass emp_cursor to the procedure for processing
  CLOSE emp_cursor;
-- find employees whose last name starts with R
  OPEN emp_cursor FOR SELECT * FROM employees WHERE last_name LIKE 'R%';
  process_emp_cv(emp_cursor);  -- pass emp_cursor to the procedure for processing
  CLOSE emp_cursor;
END;
/

See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about using cursor variables (REF CURSORs)

Cursor Attributes

Cursor attributes return information about the execution of DML and DDL statements, such INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT INTO, COMMIT, or ROLLBACK statements. The cursor attributes are %FOUND, %ISOPEN, %NOTFOUND, and %ROWCOUNT. These attributes return useful information about the most recently executed SQL statement. When using an explicit cursor, add the explicit cursor or cursor variable name to the beginning of the attribute, such as cursor1%FOUND, to return information for the most recently executed SQL statement for that cursor.
The attributes provide the following information:
  • %FOUND Attribute: Has a Row Been Fetched?
    After a cursor or cursor variable is opened but before the first fetch, %FOUND returns NULL. After any fetches, it returns TRUE if the last fetch returned a row, or FALSE if the last fetch did not return a row.
  • %ISOPEN Attribute: Is the Cursor Open?
    If a cursor or cursor variable is open, then %ISOPEN returns TRUE ; otherwise, %ISOPEN returns FALSE.
    Note that implicit cursors are automatically opened before and closed after executing the associated SQL statement so %ISOPEN always returns FALSE.
  • %NOTFOUND Attribute: Has a Fetch Failed?
    If the last fetch returned a row, then %NOTFOUND returns FALSE. If the last fetch failed to return a row, then %NOTFOUND returns TRUE. %NOTFOUND is the logical opposite of %FOUND.
  • %ROWCOUNT Attribute: How Many Rows Fetched So Far?
    After a cursor or cursor variable is opened, %ROWCOUNT returns 0 before the first fetch. Thereafter, it returns the number of rows fetched so far. The number is incremented if the last fetch returned a row.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about cursor attributes

Working With PL/SQL Data Structures

Data structure are composite datatypes that let you work with the essential properties of data without being too involved with details. After you design a data structure, you can focus on designing algorithms that manipulate the data structure.
This section contains the following topics:

Using Record Types

Record types are composite data structures whose fields can have different datatypes. You can use records to hold related items and pass them to subprograms with a single parameter. When declaring records, you use the TYPE definition, as shown in Example 4-31.
Usually you would use a record to hold data from an entire row of a database table. You can use the %ROWTYPE attribute to declare a record that represents a row in a table or a row from a query result set, without specifying the names and types for the fields. When using %ROWTYPE, the record type definition is implied, and the TYPE keyword is not necessary, as shown in Example 4-32.
Example 4-31 shows how are records are declared and initialized.
Example 4-31 Declaring and Initializing a PL/SQL Record Type
DECLARE  -- declare RECORD type variables
-- the following is a RECORD declaration to hold address information
   TYPE location_rec IS RECORD (
        room_number     NUMBER(4),
        building        VARCHAR2(25)
        );
-- you use the %TYPE attribute to declare the datatype of a table column
-- you can include (nest) a record inside of another record
   TYPE person_rec IS RECORD (
        employee_id  employees.employee_id%TYPE,
        first_name   employees.first_name%TYPE,
        last_name    employees.last_name%TYPE,
        location     location_rec
        );
  person  person_rec; -- declare a person variable of type person_rec
BEGIN
-- insert data in a record, one field at a time
  person.employee_id := 20;
  person.first_name := 'James';
  person.last_name := 'Boynton';
  person.location.room_number := 100;
  person.location.building:= 'School of Education';
-- display data in a record
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( person.last_name || ', ' || person.first_name );
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( TO_CHAR(person.location.room_number) || ' ' 
                       || person.location.building );
END;
/

Example 4-32 shows the use of %ROWTYPE in a record type declaration. This record is used with a cursor that fetches an entire row.
Example 4-32 Using %ROWTYPE With a Cursor When Declaring a PL/SQL Record
DECLARE -- declare variables
  CURSOR cursor1 IS
    SELECT * FROM employees
      WHERE department_id = 60; -- declare cursor
-- declare record variable that represents a row fetched from the employees table
-- do not need to use TYPE .. IS RECORD with %ROWTYPE attribute
   employee_rec cursor1%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
-- open the explicit cursor c1 and use it to fetch data into employee_rec
  OPEN cursor1;
  LOOP 
    FETCH cursor1 INTO employee_rec; -- retrieve entire row into record
    EXIT WHEN cursor1%NOTFOUND;
-- the record contains all the fields for a row in the employees table
-- the following displays the data from the row fetched into the record
   DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( ' Department ' || employee_rec.department_id 
     || ', Employee: ' || employee_rec.employee_id || ' - ' 
     || employee_rec.last_name || ', ' || employee_rec.first_name );
  END LOOP;
  CLOSE cursor1;
END;
/

Example 4-34 shows the use of record as an element in a varray.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about PL/SQL records

Using Collections

PL/SQL collection types let you declare high-level datatypes similar to arrays, sets, and hash tables found in other languages. In PL/SQL, array types are known as varrays (short for variable-size arrays), set types are known as nested tables, and hash table types are known as associative arrays. Each kind of collection is an ordered group of elements, all of the same type. Each element has a unique subscript that determines its position in the collection. When declaring collections, you use a TYPE definition. To reference an element, use subscript notation with parentheses.
Example 4-33 shows the use of a varray with elements of character type. A varray must be initialized before use. When initializing a varry, you can also insert values into the elements. After initialization, you need to use EXTEND to add additional elements before inserting more values into the varray.
Example 4-33 Using a PL/SQL VARRAY Type With Character Elements
DECLARE -- declare variables
  TYPE jobids_array IS VARRAY(20) OF VARCHAR2(10);  -- declare VARRAY
  jobids  jobids_array; -- declare a variable of type jobids_array
  howmany NUMBER;  -- declare a variable to hold employee count
BEGIN
  -- initialize the arrary with some job ID values
  jobids := jobids_array('AC_ACCOUNT', 'AC_MGR', 'AD_ASST', 'AD_PRES', 'AD_VP',
                         'FI_ACCOUNT', 'FI_MGR', 'HR_REP', 'IT_PROG', 'PU_MAN',
                         'SH_CLERK', 'ST_CLERK', 'ST_MAN');
-- display the current size of the array with COUNT
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number of elements (current size) in the array is '
                        || jobids.COUNT);
-- display the maximum number of elements for the array LIMIT
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The maximum number (limit) of elements in the array is '
                        || jobids.LIMIT);
-- check whether another element can be added to the array
  IF jobids.LIMIT - jobids.COUNT >= 1 THEN 
     jobids.EXTEND(1); -- add one more element
     jobids(14) := 'PU_CLERK';  -- assign a value to the element
  END IF;
-- loop through all the varray values, starting
-- with the FIRST and ending with the LAST element
  FOR i IN jobids.FIRST..jobids.LAST LOOP 
  -- determine the number of employees for each job ID in the array
    SELECT COUNT(*) INTO howmany FROM employees WHERE job_id = jobids(i);
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ( 'Job ID: ' || RPAD(jobids(i), 10, ' ') || 
                           ' Number of employees: ' || TO_CHAR(howmany));
  END LOOP;
-- display the current size of the array with COUNT
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The number of elements (current size) in the array is '
                        || jobids.COUNT);
END;
/

Example 4-34 shows the use of a varray with record type elements.
Example 4-34 Using a PL/SQL VARRAY Type With Record Type Elements
DECLARE -- declare variables
  CURSOR cursor1 IS SELECT * FROM jobs; -- create a cursor for fetching the rows
  jobs_rec  cursor1%ROWTYPE; -- create a record to hold the row data
 -- declare VARRAY with enough elements to hold all the rows in the jobs table
  TYPE jobs_array IS VARRAY(25) OF cursor1%ROWTYPE; 
  jobs_arr  jobs_array; -- declare a variable of type jobids_array
  howmany   NUMBER;  -- declare a variable to hold employee count
  i         NUMBER := 1; -- counter for the number of elements in the array
BEGIN
  jobs_arr := jobs_array(); -- initialize the array before using
  OPEN cursor1; -- open the cursor before using
  LOOP
    FETCH cursor1 INTO jobs_rec; -- retrieve a row from the jobs table
    EXIT WHEN cursor1%NOTFOUND; -- exit when no data is retrieved
    jobs_arr.EXTEND(1); -- add another element to the varray with EXTEND
    jobs_arr(i) := jobs_rec; -- assign the fetched row to an element the array 
    i := i + 1; -- increment the element count
  END LOOP;
  CLOSE cursor1; -- close the cursor when finished with it
  FOR j IN jobs_arr.FIRST..jobs_arr.LAST LOOP -- loop through the varray elements
  -- determine the number of employees for each job ID in the array
    SELECT COUNT(*) INTO howmany FROM employees WHERE job_id = jobs_arr(j).job_id;
    DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ( 'Job ID: ' || RPAD(jobs_arr(j).job_id, 11, ' ') || 
                           RPAD(jobs_arr(j).job_title, 36, ' ') ||
                           ' Number of employees: ' || TO_CHAR(howmany));
  END LOOP;
END;
/

Collections can be passed as parameters, so that subprograms can process arbitrary numbers of elements.
See Also:
Oracle Database PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference for information about PL/SQL collections

Using Bind Variables With PL/SQL

When you embed an INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or SELECT SQL statement directly in your PL/SQL code, PL/SQL turns the variables in the WHERE and VALUES clauses into bind variables automatically. Oracle Database XE can reuse these SQL statement each time the same code is executed. When running similar statements with different variable values, you can improve performance by calling a stored procedure that accepts parameters, then issues the statements with the parameters substituted in the appropriate places.
You need to specify bind variables with dynamic SQL, in clauses such as WHERE and VALUES where you normally use variables. Instead of concatenating literals and variable values into a single string, replace the variables with the names of bind variables (preceded by a colon), and specify the corresponding PL/SQL variables with the USING clause. Using the USING clause, instead of concatenating the variables into the string, reduces parsing overhead and lets Oracle Database XE reuse the SQL statements.
In Example 4-35, :dptid, :dptname, :mgrid, and :locid are examples of bind variables.

Using Dynamic SQL in PL/SQL

PL/SQL supports both dynamic and static SQL. Dynamic SQL enables you to build SQL statements dynamically at run time while static SQL statements are known in advance. You can create more general-purpose, flexible applications by using dynamic SQL because the full text of a SQL statement may be unknown at compilation time.
To process most dynamic SQL statements, you use the EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement. Dynamic SQL is especially useful for executing SQL statements to create database objects, such as CREATE TABLE.
Example 4-35 shows an example of the use of dynamic SQL to manipulate data in a table.
Example 4-35 Using Dynamic SQL to Manipulate Data in PL/SQL
DECLARE
   sql_stmt          VARCHAR2(200); -- variable to hold SQL statement
   column_name       VARCHAR2(30);  -- variable for column name
   dept_id           NUMBER(4);
   dept_name         VARCHAR2(30);
   mgr_id            NUMBER(6);
   loc_id            NUMBER(4);
BEGIN
-- create a SQL statement (sql_stmt) to execute with EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
-- the statement INSERTs a row into the departments table using bind variables
-- note that there is no semi-colon (;) inside the quotation marks '...'
  sql_stmt := 'INSERT INTO departments VALUES (:dptid, :dptname, :mgrid, :locid)';
  dept_id := 46; 
  dept_name := 'Special Projects'; 
  mgr_id := 200; 
  loc_id := 1700;
-- execute the sql_stmt using the values of the variables in the USING clause 
-- for the bind variables
  EXECUTE IMMEDIATE sql_stmt USING dept_id, dept_name, mgr_id, loc_id;

-- use EXECUTE IMMEDIATE to delete the row that was previously inserted,
-- substituting for the column name and using a bind variable
  column_name := 'DEPARTMENT_ID';
  EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'DELETE FROM departments WHERE ' || column_name  || ' = :num'
      USING dept_id;
END;
/

Example 4-36 is an example of the use of dynamic SQL to create a table. For a more complete example, see Example 5-3.
Example 4-36 Using Dynamic SQL to Create a Table in PL/SQL
DECLARE
  tabname       VARCHAR2(30); -- variable for table name
  current_date  VARCHAR2(8);  -- varible for current date
BEGIN
-- extract, format, and insert the year, month, and day from SYSDATE into 
-- the current_date variable
  SELECT TO_CHAR(EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE)) || 
     TO_CHAR(EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE),'FM09') || 
     TO_CHAR(EXTRACT(DAY FROM SYSDATE),'FM09') INTO current_date FROM DUAL;
-- construct the table name with the current date as a suffix
  tabname := 'log_table_' || current_date;
-- use EXECUTE IMMEDIATE to create a table with tabname as the table name
  EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'CREATE TABLE ' || tabname || 
                    '(op_time VARCHAR2(10), operation VARCHAR2(50))' ;
  DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(tabname || ' has been created');
-- now drop the table
  EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'DROP TABLE ' || tabname;
END;
/

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